Samskara - Rites of Passage in Hinduism

Hinduism, while practiced as a religion, is essentially a way of life. It comprises many rules, customs, and traditions that are followed by every practicing Hindu. Hindus believe that every stage of life, from conception to celebration, is a reminder of the gift of life from God. The Vedas prescribe a set of observances and rituals, known as Samskaras or Sanskaras, to be performed when an individual moves from one ashrama (stage of life) to another.

Samskaras, universally referred to as rites of passage literally means "putting together, making perfect, getting ready”. They serve a spiritual, cultural, and psychological purpose, welcoming an individual into a stage of life, conferring privileges, setting an expectation of duties, and making known his new role within his social circle. In the context of karma theory, it is believed that a newborn child carries with him karma from his previous life. Performance of these rituals throughout the individual’s lifecycle from birth to death cleanses the bad karma of the past and converts it into virtues. Samskaras are viewed in the Hindu tradition as means – not as ends – towards ripening and perfecting the journey of life.

Samskaras appear in the Srutis and the Smritis of diverse schools of Hinduism. The samskaras vary in practice depending on regional traditions. Some may involve formal ceremonies with the chanting of Vedic hymns. Others are simple, private affairs involving the couple, close friends, and family members. The number of Samskaras varies between 12 and 18 in the Grhyasutras (Kalpa sastras). Of these, 16 are referred to as "Shodasha Samskaras”.

The 16 Samskaras

1. Garbhadhana (Conception): It is the first of the 16 samskaras and marks a couple’s desire for having a baby. It is a ceremony carried out between a married couple before conception, to procreate a healthy and cultured child.
2. Pumsavana (Foetus Protection): It literally means "rites for a strong or male baby". Pumsavana is a composite word of pums (a man, a human being, a soul or spirit) and savanna (ceremony, rite, oblation, festival). It is a ritual conducted typically around the third month of pregnancy when the baby’s mental traits begin to develop. This ritual is performed to procreate a healthy and intelligent male child.
3. Simantonnayana (Satisfying the wishes of the mother): It literally means "parting the hair upwards" and is done in the 4th month of pregnancy. The objective of this ritual is to raise the mother’s morale and cheer her up so that she has only good thoughts which will eventually be absorbed by the child. In modern times, this ritual has evolved into a ceremony of the baby shower, where the mother’s friends and relatives throw a party and give gifts to the mother in the 7th or 8th month of pregnancy.
4. Jatakarman (Birth Rituals): It signifies the baby's birth, as well as the bonding of the father with the baby. Before the umbilical cord is cut, the father feeds the newborn with some butter and honey. By cutting the umbilical cord, the father performs a Yagya (ceremony with the presence of fire), whispers 9 mantras in the child’s ears, and asks for its good health, prosperity, and long life.
5. Naamkaran (Name giving): This rite of passage is usually done on the eleventh or twelfth day after birth. On this day, the chosen name is whispered in the child's ear. The naming ritual solemnizes the child as an individual, marking the process by which a child is accepted and socialized by people around him or her.
6. Nishkramana (Taking the child outdoors): This is the rite of passage where the parents take the baby outside the house for the first time, either to the temple or just shown the sun or the moon. It is usually done in the fourth month of a child’s life when their sensory organs have fully developed.
7. Annaprashana (Feeding solid food): This rite of passage is performed when the child is 6-7 months old and marks the first time it eats solid food such as cooked rice.
8. Chudakarana (Haircut): This is also known as "mundan sanskar". This rite of passage marks the child's first haircut and symbolizes the baby's cyclical step to cleanliness and hygiene. It is often held in a temple or pilgrimage, between the end of the first year of age or before completing the third year of life of the child.
9. Karnavedha (Ear Piercing): It consists of piercing the child’s ears either when the child is 6 to 16 months old or between 3 to 5 years of age. Through this ritual of ear-piercing, it is believed that femininity (in the case of girls) or masculinity (in the case of boys) is conferred. According to beliefs, the sun’s rays enter the child’s body through the holes in both earlobes and infuse it with energy.
10. Vidyarambha (Beginning of education): The ritual celebrates the child's first formal attempt to learn or acquire means of knowledge, typically around the age of 5. This includes steps where the child, helped by the parents and other family members, does one or more of the following: writes letters of the mother-tongue, draws mathematical numbers or shapes, or plays a musical instrument.
11. Upanayana (Sacred Thread): It literally means "the act of leading to or near" and is an important and widely discussed samskara. It consists of a ceremony in which a Guru (teacher) accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit. During this ceremony, a boy receives a sacred thread called Janoi or Yajnopaveetam that he needs to wear. This rite of passage compares to Baptism in Christianity where the person is born again unto spiritual knowledge.
12. Vedarambha (Study of scriptures): This rite of passage marks the start of the child's learning of the Vedas and Upanishads in school. Each student, according to his lineage, masters his own branch of the Vedas.
13. Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (Coming of age): Keshanta is the first shave of a youth's facial hair. The ceremony includes giving gifts to the barber and the teacher at his school. The coming of age ceremony ends with the student reciting his vow of chastity and the code of Brahmacharya (celibacy). Ritusuddhi is the corresponding coming of age ceremony for girls, after her first menstruation where the girl receives gifts from family and friends and wears a sari.
14. Samavartana (Completion of Education): It is a ceremony that is associated with the end of the child’s formal education and the Brahmacharya asrama of life. A child who completes this rite of passage is considered a Vidyasnataka (bathed in knowledge, or showered with learning). The student asks the teacher for any gift (guru-dakshina) of his choice, which is then obligated upon the student to deliver to the teacher over his/her lifetime.
15. Vivaha (Marriage): Vivaha is the rite of passage and corresponding rituals that is associated with marriage. A wedding is considered to be the most elaborate personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her lifetime.
16. Antyeshti (Death): Antyeshti, also referred to as Antima Samskaram, are the rituals associated with the funeral. A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried. As per scriptures, the soul (Atman, Brahman) is released while the body and the universe return to the five elements - air, water, fire, earth, and space.

In modern times, the complete set of samskaras are not generally performed, despite the efforts of the Arya Samaj, a late 19th-century reform movement that tried to revive their popularity. Given the busy lifestyles and the lens of practicality through which these Samskaras are viewed, the ceremonies most observed nowadays are only those of initiation, marriage, and death.